1) Timeline of American Literature (PDF)
2) History of American Literature (PDF)
It is, — it is my
husband's voice!
Oh hasten, (
hurry) to his succour (help) fly,
No more hast thou, dear
friend, a choice.
He calls on thee, perhaps
his foes (enemy)
Environ (Surrounding)
him on all sides round,
That wail, (cry) —
it means death's final throes!
Why standest (stand)
thou, as magic-bound? (inaction)
"Is this a time for thought, — oh gird (build up)
Thy bright sword
on, and take thy bow!
He heeds (pay
attention) not, hears not any word,
Evil hangs over us, I
know!
Swift in decision, prompt
in deed,
Brave unto rashness,
(Carelessness) can this be,
The man to whom all
looked at need?
Is it my brother that I
see!
"Oh no, and I must run alone,
For further here I cannot
stay;
Art thou transformed to
blind dumb stone!
Wherefore this impious,
(sinful) strange delay!
That cry, — that cry, —
it seems to ring
Still in my ears, — I
cannot bear
Suspense; if help we fail
to bring
His death at least we
both can share"
"Oh calm thyself,
Videhan Queen, (Ancient kingdom Mithila - Sita)
No cause is there for any
fear,
Hast
(hurry) thou his prowess (skill) never seen?
Wipe off (clear)
for shame that dastard tear!
What being of demonian
(devil) birth
Could ever brave his
mighty arm?
Is there a creature on
earth
That dares to work our
hero harm?
"The lion and the grisly
(fearful) bear
Cower (shiver)
when they see his royal look,
Sun-staring (ability
to gaze) eagles of the air
His glance (look
quickly) of anger cannot brook, (tolerate)
Pythons (anaconda)
and cobras at his tread (walk)
To their most secret coverts
(change) glide, (slip/roll)
Bowed to the dust (acknowledging
that person’s superiority) each serpent head
Erect (straight)
before in hooded (having) pride.
"Rakshasas, Danavs,
demons, ghosts,
Acknowledge in their
hearts his might, (recognize that person’s superpower)
And slink (move
smoothly) to their remotest coasts, (distant places)
In terror at his very
sight. (Afraid of that person)
Evil to him! Oh, fear it
not,
Whatever foes (enemy)
against him rise!
Banish
(exile) for aye (truly) the foolish thought, (doubting the person’s
power)
And be thyself, — bold,
great, and wise.
"He call for help! Canst
(can) thou believe
He like a child would shriek
(roar) for aid
Or pray for respite (rest)
or reprieve (pardon) —
Not of such metal (Gold)
is he made! (brave/ strong character)
Delusive (false)
was that piercing (sharp) cry, —
Some trick of magic by
the foe;
He has a work, — he
cannot die,
Beseech me not from hence
to go.
For here beside thee, as
a guard
'Twas (it was) he
commanded me to stay,
And dangers with my life
to ward (area)
If they should come
across thy way.
Send me not hence, for in
this wood
Bands (group)
scattered (separate) of the giants lurk, (hide)
Who on their wrongs (errors)
and vengeance (revenge) brood, (young)
And wait the hour their will
to work."
"Oh shame! and canst
(can) thou make my weal (happiness or property)
A plea (appel)
for lingering! (surviving) Now I know
What thou art, Lakshman!
And I feel
Far better were an open foe.
(enemy)
Art thou a coward? (weak)
I have seen
Thy bearing (relation)
in the battle-fray (wear out)
Where flew the death-fraught
arrows (dead arrows) keen, (sharp)
Else had I judged thee so
today.
"But then thy leader
stood beside!
Dazzles
(glare)
the cloud when shines the sun,
Reft (ruined)
of his radiance, (brightness) see it glide (Move smoothly)
A shapeless mass of vapours
(smoke) dun; (Brownish)
So of thy courage, — or
if not,
The matter is far darker dyed,
(wash)
What makes thee loth
(against) to leave this spot?
Is there a motive thou wouldst
(might) hide?
"He perishes (die)—
well, let him die!
His wife henceforth (after this) shall be mine own!
Can that thought deep imbedded
(fix) lie
Within thy heart's most
secret zone!
Search well and see! one
brother takes
His kingdom, — one would
take his wife!
A fair partition! — But
it makes
Me shudder,
(tremble) and abhor (hate) my life.
"Art thou in secret league
(join) with those
Who from his hope the
kingdom rent?
A spy from his ignoble
(unworthy) foes (enemy)
To track him in his banishment?
(exile)
And wouldst thou at his
death rejoice?
I know thou wouldst, or
sure ere now
When first thou heardst
that well known voice
Thou shouldst have run to
aid, I trow.
"Learn this, —
whatever comes may come,
But I shall not survive
my Love,
Of all my thoughts here
is the sum!
Witness it gods in heaven
above.
If fire can burn, or water
drown,
I follow him: — choose
what thou wilt
Truth
with its everlasting crown, (enduring reward of fidelity and sincerity.)
Or falsehood, treachery,
(betrayal), and guilt.
"Remain here with a vain
(useless) pretense
Of shielding (protect)
me from wrong and shame,
Or go and die in his
defence
And leave behind a noble
name.
Choose what thou wilt, —
I urge no more,
My pathway lies before me
clear,
I did not know thy mind
before,
I know thee now, — and
have no fear."
She said and proudly from
him turned, —
Was this the gentle Sita?
No.
Flames from her eyes shot
forth and burned,
The tears therein had ceased
(end) to flow.
"Hear me, O Queen, ere
(Prior) I depart,
No longer can I bear thy
words,
They lacerate (injure)
my inmost heart
And torture me, like
poisoned swords.
"Have I deserved
this at thine hand?
Of lifelong loyalty and
truth
Is this the meed?
(reward) I understand
Thy feelings, Sita, and
in sooth (truth)
I blame thee not, — but
thou mightst be
Less rash in judgement,
Look! I go,
Little I care what comes
to me
Wert thou but safe, — God
keep thee so!
"In going hence I
disregard
The plainest orders of my
chief,
A deed for me, — a
soldier, — hard
And deeply painful, but
thy grief
And language, wild and
wrong, allow
No other course. Mine be
the crime,
And mine alone. — but oh,
do thou
Think better of me from
this time.
"Here with an arrow,
lo, I trace
A magic circle ere I
leave,
No evil thing within this
space
May come to harm thee or
to grieve. (sorrow)
Step not, for aught,
across the line,
Whatever thou mayst see
or hear,
So shalt thou balk
(resist) the bad design
Of every enemy I fear.
"And now farewell!
What thou hast (hurry) said,
Though it has broken
quite my heart,
So that I wish I were
dead —
I would before, O Queen,
we part,
Freely forgive, for well
I know
That grief and fear have
made thee wild,
We part as friends, — is
it not so?"
And speaking thus he
sadly smiled.
"And oh ye sylvan
(pastoral) gods that dwell (live)
Among these dim (dull)
and sombre (dark) shades,
Whose voices in the breezes
swell (grow)
And blend with
noises of cascades, (waterfalls)
Watch over Sita, whom
alone
I leave, and keep her
safe from harm,
Till we return unto our
own,
I and my brother, arm in
arm.
"For though ill
omens round us rise
And frighten her dear
heart, I feel
That he is safe. Beneath
the skies
His equal is not, — and
his heel
Shall tread all
adversaries down,
Whoeve'r they may chance
to be.
Farewell,
O Sita! Blessings crown (positive outcomes and prosperity will surround
Sita)
And
peace for ever rest with thee!"
He said, and straight his
weapons took
His bow and arrows
pointed keen,
Kind, — nay, indulgent,
(liberal) — was his look,
No trace of anger, there
was seen,
Only a sorrow dark, that
seemed
To deepen his resolve to
dare
All dangers. Hoarse the
vulture screamed, (cried)
As out he strode (walk)
with dauntless (fearless) air.
Emotional Depth: The poem delves into the conflicting emotions of Lakshman. On the one hand, he has deep love and admiration for his brother Rama, and he is willing to go to any lengths to serve and protect him. On the other hand, he also harbors love and concern for Sita, Rama's wife, whom he has to leave in the forest as part of their exile. This emotional conflict forms the heart of the poem.
Sacrifice and Loyalty: The poem showcases Lakshman's unwavering loyalty and selflessness. He willingly gives up his comfort and desires to accompany his brother and sister-in-law in their exile. His sacrifice highlights his sense of duty and devotion.
Imagery and Nature: Toru Dutt employs vivid imagery from nature to depict Lakshman's emotions. The serene beauty of the forest, the moonlit nights, and the tranquil river serve as a backdrop to the emotional turmoil within Lakshman's heart.
Cultural and Mythological Context: The poem is deeply rooted in the Indian cultural and mythological context. It draws from the Ramayana, one of the most significant epics in Hindu literature. Lakshman's character embodies principles of duty, honor, and familial bonds.
In conclusion, "Lakshman" by Toru Dutt is a poignant exploration of the inner conflict and sacrifice of Lakshman, portraying his devotion to his brother Rama and the emotional struggle he faces in fulfilling his duty. The poem's emotional depth, use of natural imagery, and connection to Indian mythology make it a timeless piece of literature.
1) Mysteriousness
2) Fertile and striking imagination
3) Art of the Storyteller
4) Imagination and Emotion: Coleridge, like other Romantic writers, placed a strong emphasis on imagination and emotional expression. His poetry often explored the depths of human emotions and the power of the imagination to create vivid and fantastical worlds.
5) Nature: Nature was a central theme in Coleridge's poetry. He believed that nature was not just a physical backdrop but also a reflection of the spiritual and emotional world. His descriptions of landscapes were often infused with a sense of awe and wonder.
6) Supernatural and Mystical: Coleridge had a fascination with the supernatural and the mystical. This is evident in his famous poem "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," which incorporates supernatural elements and explores themes of guilt, redemption, and the unknown.
7) Individualism and Subjectivity: Like other Romantics, Coleridge emphasized the importance of individual experience and subjectivity. His poetry often delved into personal emotions, dreams, and introspection, giving his work a deeply personal and introspective quality.
8) Medievalism and Folklore: Coleridge was drawn to medieval literature and folklore, often incorporating these elements into his poetry. This interest can be seen in his use of archaic language and themes inspired by medieval tales.
9) Escapism and Idealization: Romantic writers frequently used their works as a means of escape from the harsh realities of the world. Coleridge's poetry often presented an idealized version of reality or explored fantastical realms as a way to transcend the limitations of everyday life.
10) Interest in the Sublime: Coleridge, like other Romantics, was interested in the concept of the sublime – the feeling of awe and terror that arises from encountering something vast and overwhelming. His poetry often aimed to evoke this sense of the sublime in readers.
11) Innovation in Language and Form: Coleridge was known for his experimentation with language and poetic form. He often played with meter, rhyme, and rhythm, seeking to create new ways of expressing his ideas and emotions.
12) Connection to the Transcendent: Coleridge's spiritual and metaphysical beliefs are evident in his work. He explored the idea of the transcendent – something beyond the physical world – and often used his poetry as a vehicle to explore questions of existence, God, and the afterlife.
13) Rejection of Neoclassical Conventions: Romantic writers like Coleridge rejected the formal and structured conventions of the preceding Neoclassical period. They embraced emotional spontaneity, individual creativity, and a more organic approach to writing.
14) As a Critic:
15) Metaphor:
These characteristics collectively showcase Coleridge's role as a prominent Romantic writer who used his poetry to explore the depths of human experience, the mysteries of the natural world, and the power of the imagination.
Deeno (Poor or needy) Daan (charity, to give or donate) by Rabindranath Tagore
Said
the royal attendant, (courtier) “Despite entreaties, (request)
king,
The
finest hermit, (saint) best among men, refuses shelter
In
your temple of gold, he is singing to god
Beneath
a tree by the road. The devout (religious) surround him
In
numbers large, their overflowing tears of joy
Rinse
(clean)
the dust off the earth. The temple, though,
Is
all but deserted; just as bees abandon (beehive)
The
gilded (rich) honeypot when maddened by the fragrance
Of
the flower to swiftly spread their wings
And
fly to the petals unfurling (open) in the bush (wild)
To
quench (put out) their eager thirst (desire), so too are people,
Sparing not a glance (glimpse) for the palace of gold,
Thronging
(round)
to where a flower in a devout heart
Spreads
heaven’s incense (aroma). On the bejewelled (adorn with jewels) platform
The
god sits alone in the empty temple.”
These lines illustrate
how people are more interested in the inner beauty of a devout heart and the
genuine spirituality it embodies, rather than being attracted to external
wealth and extravagance. The description of the empty temple with a god figure
sitting alone underscores the idea that true spiritual connection is not about
the outward show but the depth of one's heart and devotion.
At this,
The
fretful (upset) king dismounted (get down) from his throne to go
Where
the hermit sat beneath the tree. Bowing, (Curtsy) he said,
“My
lord, why have you forsaken (isolated) god’s mighty (big) abode,
(home/place)
The
royal construction of gold that pierces (to reach) the sky,
To
sing paeans (Praise) to the divine here on the streets?’
“There
is no god in that temple,” said the hermit.
This stanza underscores a clash between external displays of opulence and the hermit's inward spiritual focus. The king, attached to the grandeur of the temple, questions the hermit's actions, while the hermit emphasizes the idea that true spiritual connection transcends physical structures and is not confined to places of material extravagance.
Furious,
The
king said, “No god! You speak like a godless man,
Hermit.
A bejewelled idol on a bejewelled throne,
You
say it’s empty?”
“Not
empty, it holds royal arrogance,
You
have consecrated yourself, not the god of the world.”
The above lines suggest the contrasting
perspectives of the king and the hermit regarding the temple's significance.
The king is angered by the hermit's statement, defending the grandeur
(luxuriousness) of the temple, while the hermit sees beyond the external
splendor and critiques the motivations behind its construction. The hermit's
response emphasizes the importance of true humility and devotion in matters of
spirituality, suggesting that the king's actions may be driven by arrogance
rather than a genuine connection with the divine.
Frowning,
(make a face) said the king, “You say the temple I made
With
twenty lakh gold coins, reaching to the sky,
That I dedicated to the deity after due rituals,
This
impeccable (faultless) edifice (structure) – it has no
room for god!”
Said
the tranquil (calm) hermit, “The year when the fires
Raged
(angry/
furious) and rendered (help) twenty thousand subjects
Homeless,
destitute (poor); when they came to your door
With
futile (vain) pleas (appal) for help, and sheltered in the
woods,
In
caves, in the shade of trees, in dilapidated (run down) temples,
When
you constructed your gold-encrusted (coated) building
With
twenty lakh gold coins for a deity, god said,
‘My
eternal home is lit (light/fire) with countless lamps
In
the blue, infinite sky; its everlasting (immortal) foundations
Are
truth, peace, compassion, love. This feeble (weak) miser (saver)
Who
could not give homes to his homeless subjects
Expects to give me one!’
At that moment god left
To
join the poor in their shelter beneath the trees.
As
hollow (empty) as the froth and foam (a mass of small
bubbles) in the deep wide ocean
Is
your temple, just as bereft (Cut off from) beneath the universe,
A
bubble (can easily broke) of gold and pride.”
In that, the hermit's response serves as a critique
of the king's priorities and actions. It emphasizes the spiritual essence of
God's presence and the hollowness of material displays of devotion. The story
illustrates the hermit's belief that true spiritual connection is found in
humility, compassion, and selflessness, rather than in extravagant buildings.
Flaring
(flame)
up in rage (ill temper)
The
king said, “You false deceiver, (cheater) leave my kingdom
This
instant.”
The king’s response here highlights his emotional reaction to the saint’s criticism of his actions and values. The king’s anger suggests his attachment and his inability to tolerate the saint’s viewpoints.
Serenely (peaceful) the hermit said to him,
“You
have exiled (throw out) the one who loves the devout.
Now
send the devout into the same exile, king.”
At last, the hermit's response highlights his
consistent commitment to spiritual principles and his refusal to be perturbed
by the king's anger or actions. He calmly communicates his viewpoint and
encourages the king to reconsider his approach to matters of devotion and
spirituality.
Themes
1) Religion
vs Spirituality
2)
Humanism
/ Religion of Man
3)
Poverty
and Wealth
4)
Power
and Devotion
5)
Inner
Beauty vs. Pretend
6)
Arrogance
vs Civility
I
My life is then a wasted ereme,(wasteland)
My song but idle wind
Because you merely find
In all this woven wealth of rhyme
Harsh figures with harsh music wound, (cut)
The uncouth (rough) voice of gorgeous birds,
A ruby carcanet (Necklace) of sound,
A cloud of lovely words?
I am, you say, no magic-rod, (Magical things )
No cry oracular, (prophetic)
No swart (dark) and ominous (threatening) star,
No Sinai-thunder voicing God, (The Lord’s Voice on Sinai - From Bible)
I have no burden to my song,
No smouldering (process of burning slowly with smoke but no flame) word instinct with fire,
No spell to chase (follow) triumphant (successful) wrong,
No spirit-sweet desire.
Mine is not Byron’s (Satirist) lightning spear, (Lightning Spear is an Incantation in Elden Ring.)
Nor Wordsworth’s (Nature Poet) lucid strain (Music)
Nor Shelley’s ( Atheist) lyric pain,
Nor Keats’, the poet without peer. (gentleman)
I by the Indian waters vast
Did glimpse the magic of the past,
And on the oaten-pipe (Oat plant or natural material) I play
Warped (deform) echoes of an earlier day.
II
My friend, when first my spirit woke,
I trod (Walk) the scented (smell) maze (Puzzle with twists and turns where try to find the path)
Of Fancy’s myriad (Countless) ways,
I studied Nature like a book
Men rack (Frame) for meanings; yet I find
No rubric (rules) in the scarlet rose,
No moral in the murmuring wind,
No message in the snow.
For me the daisy shines a star,
The crocus flames a spire (Peak),
A horn of golden fire,
Narcissus (Myth of Narcissism) glows a silver bar:
Cowslips, the golden breath of God,
I deem (consider) the poet’s heritage,
And lilies silvering the sod (lawn or grass)
Breathe fragrance from his page.
But in a moon-lit veil (vale)
A russet (reddish brown in color) nightingale
Who pours (flow) sweet song, he knows not why,
Who pours like a wine a gurgling (bubble) note
Paining (pain)with sound his swarthy throat,
Who pours sweet song, he recks (regard)not why,
Nor hushes (silence) ever lest he die.
